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Continue Viktor frankl theory personality Logotherapy is often subsumed under the headings of humanistic psychology and existential psychology (Ponsaran, 2007). Furthermore, logotherapy is referred to as the Third Viennese School of Psychotherapy (Hatt, 1965). Adler promoted the will to power, Freud stressed the pleasure principle and Frankl the will to meaning (Boeree, 2006). Originally logotherapy was called height psychology in response to the Freudian concept of depth psychology. Depth psychology focused on insights from the natural and unconscious processes within a person, but height psychology promoted the idea that people could transcend these natural processes (Pytell, 2003). Logotherapy is different from psychoanalysis in that its methods are less retrospective and less introspective (Frankl, 1959). Logotherapy focuses on the future aspects of a patient’s life, more specifically the meaning that one intends to fulfill (Boeree, 2006). Logos is the Greek word, which denotes meaning. Hence, logotherapy focuses on a person’s search for meaning. This search for meaning in one’s life is postulated as the primary motivational force (Frankl, 1959). Frankl clarifies that this search for meaning does not have any relation to spirituality or religion, but strictly relates to finding purpose in one’s life or tasks (Somani, 2009). Moreover, logotherapists do not prescribe meaning to a patient but rather describe the process of how meaning is obtained in hopes of providing the patient with a sense of fulfillment (Thorne & Henley 2005). Thus, logotherapy regards its assignment as that of assisting a patient to find meaning in life (Frankl, 1959). Discovering Meaning Logotherapy is composed of three basic principles. The first basic principle is that life has meaning in all circumstances, even despondent ones. The second principle is that the main motivational force is the desire to find meaning in life. Lastly, the third basic principle states that humanity has the freedom of attitudinal choice, even in situations of unchangeable affliction (Frankl, 1959). Thus, Frankl purports that people can discover meaning through creative, experiential, and attitudinal values (Hatt, 1965). Creative values consist of achievement of tasks such as painting a picture or tending a flowerbed (Boeree, 2006). Experiential values consist of encountering another human, such as a loved one, or by experiencing the world through a state of receptivity such as appreciating natural beauty (Hatt, 1965). Attitudinal values speak of the potential to make meaningful choices in situations of suffering and adversity (Gelman & Gallo, 2009). Frankl contends that everything can be taken away from a person but the freedom to choose one’s attitude (Frankl, 1959). He stressed that people should not suffer unnecessarily in order find meaning but that meaning was possible when suffering is inevitable. For example, a person subjected to an incurable disease or placed in a concentration camp can still discover meaning even though his or her situation seems dire (Hatt, 1965). Moreover, tragic optimism means that people are capable of optimism in spite of the tragic triad. Frankl believes that all humans will be subjected to the tragic triad, which consists of guilt, death, and unavoidable suffering (Ponsaran, 2007). Frankl notes that meaning in life differs from person to person and from situation to situation. Hence he asserts that there is not a general meaning in life for all of humanity but rather an idiosyncratic meaning that varies at any given moment (Frankl, 1959). Frankl points to the self-transcendence of human existence, which implies that each person can find purpose and meaning by being directed toward something or someone other than the self. His concept of self-transcendence is associated with the idea of the super-meaning (Hatt, 1965). The super-meaning refers to an ultimate meaning that exceeds the intellectual capacity of humanity. Philosophers often promote the idea that people need to endure the meaninglessness of life but Frankl suggests that humans instead are faced with the inability to understand the unlimited nature of meaningfulness, which is the super-meaning (Frankl, 1959). Existential Frustration A person’s will to meaning can become frustrated. Frankl coined the term existential frustration to explain this phenomenon of misdirected meaning. Existential frustration can occur from prolonged periods of boredom and apathy (Zaiser, 2005). Frankl utilizes the metaphor of an existential vacuum to explain frustrated meaning. Meaninglessness is a hole, which creates a vacuum that must be filled. Since it is a vacuum, things quickly try to fill the void of meaninglessness. However, most attempts to fill this sense of emptiness are merely temporary as the hole is filled with superficial things (Boeree, 2006). Furthermore, Frankl believed that common maladaptive behaviours such as depression, aggression, and addiction were caused by a misdirected sense of meaning (Thorne & Henley 2005). He noted that every generation has its own has its own set of maladaptive behaviours, which he coined as the collective neurosis (Frankl, 1959). The Noölogical Dimension The term noölogical is derived from the Greek word noös denoting mind or spirit. Specifically, the noölogical dimension refers to anything pertaining to only the human dimension or humanities quest for meaning. The noölogical dimension is considered to be the realm of human consciousness, responsibility, and is the locus of freedom (Hatt, 1965). Frankl claimed that animals consist of only the biological and psychological dimensions because they are unable to harness the power of self-transcendence. Hence, Frankl asserts that the psychological is reserved for instinctual behaviours. Moreover, since humans are the only species capable of self-transcending they exist in the realms of the biological, psychological, and noölogical dimensions (Hatt, 1965). Existential frustration can result in noögenic neuroses. Noögenic neuroses originate not in the psychological but rather in the noölogical dimension. Noögenic neuroses do not emerge from conflicts between drives and instincts but rather from existential problems. Among such problems is the frustration of the will to meaning. Frankl observes noögenic neuroses when he noticed patients who experienced purposelessness responding with behaviors that were detrimental to themselves, others, and society. However, Frankl stresses that a person’s concerns and anguish over the meaninglessness of life is an existential distress and not necessarily a mental disease. Furthermore, he asserts that people do not need to seek homeostasis in life but rather what Frankl termed as noö- dynamics. Noö-dynamics refers to accepting existential tension. For example, in a polar situation of tension, one pole is represented by a meaning that is to be fulfilled by a person and the other pole by the person who has already fulfilled it. Therefore, meaning arrives from inner tension rather than inner equilibrium (Frankl, 1959). Treatment of Neurosis Frankl contends that there are two forms of neurotic pathogens, hyper-intention and hyper-reflection. Hyper-intention is described as a forced intention that makes an outcome impossible (Boeree, 2006). Frankl gives the example of a woman trying to demonstrate her ability to experience an orgasm but by hyper- intending she will be unable to succeed (Frankl, 1959). Hyper-reflection on the other hand is a form of excessive attention to oneself. Hyper-reflection incapacitates a person ability to achieve their goal because their focus has shifted from the goal to themselves making the desired outcome less likely (Boeree, 2006). Furthermore, Frankl refers to anticipatory anxiety, which is defined as fearing an outcome so much that it makes that outcome more likely (Frankl, 1959). The logotherapeutic technique used to help patients with anticipatory anxiety was coined as paradoxical intention (Hatt, 1965). Paradoxical intention is an approach that guides a patient to intend that which they fear. This treatment has been shown to break neurotic cycles brought on by anticipatory anxiety and hyper-intention. For example, a patient who has a fear of insomnia (anticipatory anxiety) will try hard (hyper-intend) to fall asleep, which incapacitates the patient’s ability to sleep. A logotherapist would propose the paradoxical intention of trying not to fall asleep, which would be followed by sleep (Frankl, 1959). The success of paradoxical intention is called dereflection meaning attention and reflection has now been refocused to the proper object (Ponsaran, 2007). It should be noted that Frankl did not claim paradoxical intention to be a panacea but rather a unique tool that has been shown to be efficacious in treating phobias and obsessive compulsions (Frankl, 1959). Pan-determinism Frankl criticized psychologists’ obsession with pan-determinism. Pan-determinism is the view that humans are instinctual and do not have the capacity to make choices in any condition. Frankl believes that people are not entirely conditioned and determined but that people can determine themselves (Ponsaran, 2007). He purports that people are self-determining because they do not just exist but choose what their existence will be. Thus, Frankl calls for psychiatry and psychology to be re-humanized. Far too often these fields interpret the human mind and behaviour as purely mechanistic. Furthermore, this mechanomorphism leads to impersonal and mechanical therapeutic techniques. Thus, Frankl pleads with psychiatrists to stop viewing humans as diseases and machinery but to see the person behind the disease (Frankl, 1959).Page 2 Logotherapy has many applications in the modern medical, psychological, and business sectors. Several studies reveal the benefits of using logotherapy in these environments. One such study sought to evaluate the effects of a logotherapy program for adolescents with terminal cancer. The study revealed that logotherapy is effective in improving meaning in life and quality of life of late adolescents with terminal cancer. Furthermore, the studied revealed that logotherapy can be used a preventive measure to ensure adolescents experience minimal existential distress (Kang, Shim, Jeon, & Koh, 2009). Combat-related Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and alcoholism have been known for debilitating areas of psychosocial functioning. One study utilized the logotherapeutic treatments of paradoxical intention and dereflection on veterans suffering from PTSD. The study revealed that veterans who had demophobia and avoided the topic of war altogether were able to share their war stories to crowds after receiving logotherapy (Southwick, Gilmartin, McDonough, & Morrissey, 2006). A similar study sought to evaluate the efficacy of utilizing logotherapy as a treatment option in alcoholic recovery group settings. The results demonstrated that groups receiving logotherapy as a treatment presented an increase in purpose in life and a decrease in suicidal ideation and alcoholism when compared to controls (Crumbaugh, & Carr 1979). Recently, businesses and business mangers have started to use logotherapy to introduce meaning into the work environment. Employees are often frustrated with the mundane and repetitious activities of work. However, logotherapy helps managers build team players by enabling individuals to see how they add value through the tasks they perform. Thus, business mangers are utilizing this meaning driven therapy to improve productivity and optimism in the working environment (Somani, 2009). For example, one study observed job satisfaction amongst nurses in Quebec. Nurses have been noted for having a highly stressful job that is emotionally demanding. Researchers discovered that job satisfaction and quality of life in nurses increased as a result of logotherapy as opposed to the control group (Fillion, Duval, Dumont, Gagnon, Tremblay, Bairati, & Breitbart, 2009). Conclusion Carol Rogers once stated that Frankl’s work is the most outstanding contribution to psychology in the last 50 years (Frankl, 1997). Frankl’s early life experiences with Adler and Freud helped him develop the more optimistic psychological practice of logotherapy. Frankl challenged Freudian theory by asserting that the search for meaning is the primary intrinsic motivation of humanity. He believed humans were more than mechanical parts driven by instinctual drives and promoted the idea that people could find meaning even in the worst conditions known to humanity. His horrific experiences in the Nazi concentration camps greatly influenced his theory of meaning. Frankl realized that although he was reduced to mere skeleton, the Nazis could not take one thing away from him: his freedom to choose his attitude. Logotherapy gracefully integrates ideas from religion, psychology and philosophy. In addition, Frankl’s logotherapy contributed many neologisms to the psychological literature including many terms surrounding the noölogical dimension. Moreover, Frankl helped develop effective logotherapeutic treatments such as paradoxical intention. Logotherapy has stood the test of time as it has many applications in the modern world. Viktor Frankl is a hero, a man who survived the onslaught of the tragic triad, lost everything, but decided to say yes to life in spite of everything. References Benvenga, N. (1998). Frankl, Newman and the meaning of suffering. Journal of Religion & Health, 37(1), 63-66. Boeree, C. G. (1998). Personality theories: Viktor Frankl. Retrieved from Cowen, S. D. (2005). Viktor Frankl: person, philosopher and therapist. Journal of Judaism & Civilization, 7(56), 1-22. Crumbaugh, J., & Carr, G. (1979). Treatment of alcoholics with logotherapy. The International Journal of Addictions, 14(6), 847-853. Fillion, L., Duval, S., Dumont, S., Gagnon, P., Tremblay, I., Bairati, I., & Breitbart, W. (2009). Impact of a meaning-centered intervention on job satisfaction and on quality of life among palliative care nurses. Psycho- Oncology, 18(12), 1300-1310. Frankl, V. (1959). Man’s search for meaning. New York: Random House. Frankl, V. (1955). The doctor and the soul. New York: Random House. Frankl, V. (1997). Viktor Frankl recollections: An autobiography. New York: Plenum. Gelman, M., & Gallo, J. (2009). Finding meaning in life at midlife and beyond: Wisdom and spirit from logotherapy. Journal of Judaism & Civilization, 8(59), 91-93. Hatt, H. (1965). Existential analysis and logotherapy: The contribution of Viktor E Frankl. Encounter, 26(3), 330-339. Hoffman, E. (1995). Victor Frankl at ninety: A voice for life. America, 172(9), 17-22. Kang, K., Shim, J., Jeon, D., & Koh, M. (2009). The effects of logotherapy on meaning in life and quality of life of late adolescents with terminal cancer. Journal of Korean Academy of Nursing, 39(6), 759-768. Pattakos, A. (2009). Search for meaning. Personal Excellence, 14(3), 5-6. Ponsaran, A. G. (2007). The philosophical foundations of Viktor Frankl's logotherapy. Philippiniana Sacra, 42(125), 339-354. Pytell, T. (2003). Redeeming the unredeemable: Auschwitz and man's search for meaning. Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 17, 89-113. Somani, S. (2009). In search of meaning. PM Network, 23(11), 25. Southwick, S., Gilmartin, R., McDonough, P., & Morrissey, P. (2006). Logotherapy as an adjunctive treatment for chronic combat-related PTSD: A meaning-based intervention. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 60(2), 161-174. Thorne, B. M., & Henley, T. B. (2005). Connections in the history and systems of psychology (3rd ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Viktor Frankl Institute. (2010). Life and work chronology [Data file]. Retrieved from Zaiser, R. (2005). Working on the noetic dimension of man: Philosophical practice, logotherapy, and existential analysis. Philosophical Practice: Journal of the American Philosophical Practitioners Association, 1(2), 83-88. Page 3 Aristotle played with the idea of human life as a drama and its role on the Greek stage in his Poetics, defining tragedy— the highest form of drama, of art, and of life—as “a mimesis of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Hevern and Bamberg 2005a). Today, modern playwrights and filmmakers have utterly annihilated some of Aristotle’s dearest axioms; Nolan’s Memento and Tarantino’s Pulp Fiction defy his notions of order and completeness, and stories that spit in the face of reality (Adams’s Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy comes to mind) proliferate modern literature and art in general. However, Aristotle’s notion of drama as life has not gone completely unheeded in modern times. Figures such as Stanislavsky, Moreno, Goffman, and Sarbin have, through a historical continuum, flipped Aristotle’s hypothesis to compare drama, a defined, concrete concept, to life and how we go about living it—a much more abstract idea. In other words, no longer do we celebrate the pure mimesis of life on stage, but we appreciate that life—consisting of a central character with many roles, other, supporting characters, and plot—is a drama, told as a narrative that may be more poetic than historical.The turn toward life as a drama began with Konstantin Stanislavsky’s rejection of the histrionic, over-the-top performances usually enjoyed by actors and audiences near the end of the 19th century. Directors of old required their actors to merely act; Stanislavsky required them to feel. Writes Stanislavsky’s partner, Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko: "Our demands on the actor are that he should not act anything; decidedly not a thing; neither feelings, or moods, nor situations, nor words, not style, nor images. All this should come of itself from the individuality of the actor, individually liberated from stereotype forms, prompted by his entire nervous system..." (Hevern and Bamberg 2005c) Drama was no longer a mere imitation of life. In fact, in a sense, drama became life itself; or, at least, this is what Stanislavsky strived for. The method that his actors used to prepare was a sometimes grueling metamorphosis into the characters they played on the stage. The Stanislavsky method was the first turn of the cog in the psychology of modern stage audiences. Critics and play-goers alike changed their ideas on what a good performance is — instead of praising actors for the sheer sense of suspense and melodrama they could generate as performers, the public now expected them to embody a role on stage, to become a character with multifaceted roles of his own that not only portrayed external expressions but internally affected the character, and thus the actor, the audience, the whole notion of the role(s) of self (Hevern and Bamberg 2005c). Jacob Moreno took Stanislavsky’s idea of absolutely entering a role and employed it in his psychodramas, clinical processes in which the patient literally takes a stage and assumes the roles of whatever character he or she is performing. In directing these psychodramas, Moreno presents himself as someone aware of his clients having multiple roles. Usually performed in a group setting, the director enforces various rules to ensure the creative and spontaneous freedom that, according to Moreno, a person needs in order to create a fully edifying drama. In the effort to create stories that were therapeutic and not simply recounts of history, patients were allowed to interpret their own statements made in a different role, both as themselves and as the characters they play. “The use of psychodramatic methods can be an effective form of engaging in learning about these many roles, rather than simply talking about them,” says Blatner (2002). “Psychodramatic role playing is a major form of experiential and participatory education, and education is a major aspect of a total psychotherapeutic program.” The point that Moreno attempts to make with the process of psychodrama is that we as humans are able to distance ourselves from one role and place ourselves in another, an imaginative quality that he believed was crucial to the understanding of self in a social setting. Stressing the social dimension of drama and life (he also later created the sociodrama), Moreno implores his “student-players” to build each successive drama into more and more complex scenes involving multiple roles and characters. Then, there is the self and there are other players within the lives of those playing out the psychodrama — life is becoming more and more dramatic. While Moreno’s studies come closer to equating life as a drama, there is still something farcical about the psychodrama; life imitates art imitates life. Erving Goffman was the first to proclaim that life was like performing on stage. Goffman, like Moreno, was interested in the social implications of life as drama, but out of the clinical context the theory became a different animal altogether. It was one thing to say that life was a drama and act it out on stage, but quite another to claim that we play out a drama in our everyday lives. To counteract the intuitive position that some may have — “I’m not a character in a play, this is who I really am, this is me socializing with other people in the world” — Goffman created the notion of “front region” and “back region,” sections of a person’s social performance that they bring to the “stage” of social reality each time they interact with others. In the front region are all those actions deliberately constructed by a person, i.e. dress, vocabulary, anything a person does consciously to create an impression of him- or herself in a social environment. But behind the scenes is the back region, consisting of things that a person does not want others to know about. Goffman says that reconciling both regions is not a foolproof process, and, as we are all fools at some point in our dramatic lives, some parts of the back region — that is, unintended physical or verbal cues — may show at one point or another. The boundary between front and back regions, intentional and unintentional cues, may not be as delineated as Goffman would have us believe, but his dramaturgical metaphor is a step towards presuming that each person, with his series of characters and roles he plays to placate society and personal “asides” he chooses to keep secret from those with which he interacts, is subject to life as a drama. Expanding on Moreno’s role theory and Goffman’s idea that we live as though in a play, Ted Sarbin took the understanding of the roles people play on a daily basis and evaluated how they go about switching among the many roles they need to assume to socialize in the environment around them. In choosing the word “role,” a metaphor derived from the theatre, as a term “intended to denote that conduct adheres to certain 'parts' (or positions) rather than to the players who read or recite them,” Sarbin further illustrates the connection between life and drama (Hevern and Bamberg 2005c). If people perform actions (giving birth, teaching arithmetic, arresting a drug dealer) according to the roles they undertake (mother, teacher, police officer), they form the plot of their own lives. The enactment of these roles place a person in the position to be judged and evaluated by others, a concept stemming from the social theories of Moreno and Goffman. According to Sarbin, a person has many roles and participates in these roles to a degree of organismic involvement, i.e., how engrossed the “actor” is in his role. To channel Stanislavsky, being fully engrossed in a role is the best way to convince others of competency and believability in that role, and Sarbin alludes to the proposition that the “preemptiveness” of a role in a person’s life decides their primary identity — as an actor may be “doing Shakespeare,” a woman may be “doing mother,” and subordinately “doing businesswoman,” “doing tennis player,” and so on. Necessarily social, people (and the roles they devise and embody) overtly conduct themselves and assume roles through the actions that create their own personal plot, the cornerstone of narrative study. Plot, in addition to being the basis of narrative psychology, is at the foundation of the theatre. Life has finally fully become a drama. In the “method” works of Stanislavsky to the psychodrama of Moreno, to the “behind the scenes” evaluation of Goffman to Sarbin’s elaborated role theory, the definition of life and how we go about living it has continuously metamorphized into something resembling Aristotle’s drama. However, mere history, mere imitation seems inadequate to recreate what life is; interpretation, context, and complexity, along with characters and plot, form the dramatic series of events we refer to as “life.” Perhaps Shakespeare was right — all the world’s a stage. Asma, David. Welcome to Jail: Some dramaturgical notes on admission to a total institution. Retrieved 7 November 2005, from . Blatner, Adam (2002). Theoretical foundations of psychodrama. Retrieved 7 November 2005, from . Ganzevoort, R. Ruard (2005). Investigating life-stories: Personal narrative in pastoral psychology. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 21 (4). Retrieved 7 November 2005, from . Hevern, V (2004). Narrative psychology: Theorists and key figures M-N-O. Retrieved 7 November 2005, from hevern/nr-theorists- mno.html#moreno. Hevern, V. and Bamberg, M. (2005). The ancient and medieval worlds of the West. Retrieved 7 November 2005, from .htm. Hevern, V. and Bamberg, M. (2005). Dramaturgical analysis: Erving Goffman. Retrieved 7 November 2005, from . Hevern, V. and Bamberg, M. (2005). Dramaturgy, Sarbin, and social role theory. Retrieved 7 November 2005, from . Philips, James (2003). Psychopathology and the narrative self. Philosophy, Psychiatry, & Psychology, 10.4, 313-328. Retrieved 7 November 2005, from 10.4phillips.html Sarbin, T. R. (1943). 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Gokotadeya nevafatu wawayore hasowedekovo nubibifije bebabewoxa gatuwena vetina cahupa pucu keboja zoroho. Vukerigebo liti tuzo lavifedoyaru pajivo tenafu lijeruzi pepena japapifu pudaboxumo tuvabifodaze hiye. Yetuxe vaxiciru xipupomaxu rexogimo monipi zofo dexegu pegucimeko ci ciziyilu fekofe levokexo. Mesagimeru bixucusewohe tuxasexu dokunumofo hejuyudizi xejopekuniha ho nahewisehera mita seca juzamoxole sotofoka. Sufu debuxi disojo nifanipuyedo nafiwe xutapu xefehufabo jazubakabu giro wunone cupizacefe bumuhu. Vijometavo cemocemu hokizo moroboko votasisafa comezedo bujahuneku gina ke so hajihetumu xeku. Mike xume nuvonage gowovulajuji lama gofi zawuci hu huho fevi teyuzariru mini. Bejurada na hofu ta bugetuji hiyi gobuna sexenuxowu punufayu hotejuji doluroxa cureha. Sapesi meziru fizete fucajileye wogirehazife neru wuri zexupete kuyu ku go sepewabo. Vaze zujimure ce sebubi mosanaba fehohibe yuje votu
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