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RESEARCH METHODS
NOTES
BY
Dr. Hans Zuuring
School of Forestry
University of Montana
Missoula, MT 9
USA
AT
PAKISTAN FORESTRY INSTITUTE
PESHAWAR, PAKISTAN
June 1992
Page
Experimental Design .. .......... .... .. 34
Three Design Principles
... ........... 35
Experimentation Concepts .. .......... 35
Various Experimental Designs
1.
Completely Randomized (C.R.D.) . ....... 36
Analysis of Variance Table ... ......... 36
ANOVA Example # 1 ..... .............. 37
2.
Randomized Block (R.13.D.) ... .......... 39
3. Latin or GraecoLatin Square (L.S.) ..... ... 40
ANOVA Example i
2 ..... .............. 41
4.
Factorials ...... ................. 43
ANOVA Example 3 .... ...... ........ 45
ANOVA Example 4 ,. ............. 47
5.
Splitplot ...... ................. 49
ANOVA Example !t 5 ..... .............. 50
6. Nested or hierarchical ... ........... 53
ANOVA Example 1 6 ..... .............. 54
Homogeneity of Variance ... ............ 56
Bartlett's Test
..... ............... 56
MultipleComparison Procedures .. ......... 57
ChiSquare Tests ................ 59
ChiSquare Example .... ............. 60
Model Building ................. 61
Types of Models
Steps in ..... ............... 61
Model Building ... ........... 61
Errors in Models ..... .............. 61
Mistaken Causality .... ............. 62
Examples of Models .... ............. 62
Model Building Methods .... ............. 62
Method of Least Squares
... ........... 63
Linear Regression Calculations . ....... 64
Regression Example
.... ............ 65
Multiple Linear Regression .. ......... 68
All possible regressions
.. ......... 68
Stepwise regression ... ........... 68
Forced fit
................ 69
Summary Statistics and Tests
Nonlinear ........ 69
Regression ... ............ 70
Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)
. ........ 71
Manuscript Reviews ................ 72
Writing for Publication
Some Writing .... .............. 74
Style Tips ... ............ 76
References ........ .................... 77
Appendix A : Z & ttest key
... ........... . 79
Tables 1 4 ........ .......... 83
Table of Contents
Page
General Definitions ......... ...... 1
Scientific Method Flowchart ..... . . . . . . . 2
Observation and Hypothesis Formulation ... ...... 2
Developing Research Programs ...... ........... 3
Problem Specification ....... ............. 3
Solution Identification ...... ........... 3
Project Outlines ........ ................ 4
Study Plans ...... .. .................. 4
Interprecations ........ ................ 4
Implementations ........ ................ 4
Research, Resource Scientists and Managers .... 5
Problem Identification ... .............. 5
Planning/Execution of a Research Problem .. ..... 6
Study Plan Model ......... ................. 7
Why Write a Study Plan ....... .............. 8
Study Plan Evaluation Standards
..... .......... 8
Measurement Scales ........ ................ 9
Clearing Up Confusing Terms
...... ............ 9
DATA COLLECTION
Sampling Concepts
......... ................ 10
Various Sampling Designs .... ............. 11
A.
Equal Probability Types
Al. Simple Random Sampling
... ........... . 12
A2. Stratified Random Sampling
.... ......... 12
A3. Systematic Sampling ... ............. 13
A4. Double Sampling ..... ............. 14
A5. Cluster Sampling
.... .............. 15
B.
Unequal Probablity Types
Bl. Point (P.P.S.) Sampling .. .......... 16
Theoretical Development of BAF
... ....... 17
Volume Determination
.... ............ 18
B2. 3P Sampling
..... .............. .. 20
B3. Line Intersection Method
.. .......... 21
DATA ANALYSES
Graphical
......... ..................... 23
Analytical ........ .................... 25
Description ....... .................. 26
Descriptive Statistics An example ..... . 30
Hypothesis Testing
..... ............... 31
Characteristics about Hypotheses . ...... 31
Truth Table
... ........................ 31
Relationship between a and B .. ........ 32
Hypothesis Testing Procedures .. ......... 32
Twosample ttest Example
.. .......... 33
Page 1.
General Definitions
Science: a)
The accumulation of knowledge about and the study of
phenomena taking place in the physical universe by logic
and objectivity.
b) A branch
of knowledge or study dealing with a body of
facts or truths systematically arranged and showing the
operation of general laws. [what can be proved false]
Philosophy: The rational investigation of truths, principles of
being, knowledge or conduct, i.e. ethics, metaphysics,
logic. [what can be argued about]
LoQic: A science dealing with the investigation of principles
governing correct or reliable inference (the deriving of
a conclusion in logic by either induction or deduction)
Deduction: a) The process of extracting specific facts or axioms
from general principles or
b) reasoning from a known principle to an unknown premise
c) or abstracting from the general to the specific.
Induction: The process of generalization of specific known facts to
a larger universe or population.
Scientific Method: A systematized, logical way of acquiring knowledge
about natural processes and phenomena which occur in our
world. It is characterized by objectivity and repeat
ability.
Research: The
diligent, scholarly investigation or careful inquiry
of objects, states, events or phenomena that are of in
terest to society and scientists. Research may be basic
or applied. The distinction between these two terms is
related to the nature of the problem being solved, who
is the immediate client and the time to completion and
implementation.
Other Methods
of Arriving at Conclusions
a) Tenacity:
strongly holding on to facts or beliefs without regard
to whether they are true or false.
b) Authority:
making reliable opinions based on one's great knowledge
or experience.
c) Intuition:
perceiving or acquiring knowledge without conscious
reasoning.
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