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         © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC                                © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC
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                         © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC                                © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC
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                    CHAPTER 4                             Principles of Ecology:
                                                          How Ecosystems Work
                         © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC                                © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC
                    CHAPTER OUTLINE
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                       4.1 Humans and Nature:             Never does nature say one thing, and wisdom another.
                           The Vital Connections
                       4.2 Ecology: The Study of                                                                          —Juvenal
                           Natural Systems
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                       4.3 The Structure of Natural
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                           Systems                                ost of us live our lives seemingly apart from nature. We make
                       4.4 Ecosystem Function                     our homes in cities and towns, surround ourselves with con-
                           Spotlight on Sustainable       Mcrete and steel, and drown out the songs of birds with noise.
                           Development 4-1:               The closest many of us get to nature is a romp with the family dog
                                         © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC                                © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC
                           Sustainable Sewage             on the grass in the backyard. A lucky few come in much closer con-
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                           Treatment: Mimicking           tact with the great outdoors through hiking, camping, canoeing, and
                           Nature                         kayaking. For many of these people, though, nature is still viewed
                           Spotlight on Sustainable       as something apart from humans—a thing to protect to preserve a few
                           Development 4-2:               pristine places for people to enjoy.
                         © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC                                © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC
                           Colleges and Universities
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                           Go Green
                           Point/Counterpoint:             4.1    Humans and Nature: The Vital Connections
                           Controversy over
                           Extinction                     Hard as it may be for many people to accept, human beings are part of the fabric of
                                                          life. We are a part of nature. We are dependent on the Earth and natural systems in
         © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC                                © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC
                                                          thousands of ways and are an integral part of the cycles of nature. Consider our de-
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                            CRITICAL THINKING                                                   Throughout this chapter, we explore our connections to
                             Exercise                                                      the living world. We examine the ways in which human sys-
                                                                                           tems depend on natural systems and the ways in which hu-
           © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC                                         © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC
                             The information gained from various fields of                 mans affect them. One of the goals of this chapter is to help
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                             science such as ecology is often loosely trans-               you understand how nature works and how we can work bet-
                             lated in the public arena. Terms are some-                    ter with nature to create a sustainable future. You will find
                             times misinterpreted. Facts are taken out of                  that a great many of the lessons learned from the study of ecol-
                             context. New findings are given more cre-                     ogy can be applied to human      GO GREEN
                                                                                           society. Before we begin our
                                               © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC                                          © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC
                             dence than they deserve, and old, disproved
                                                                                           journey, however, let me say    Check out current efforts to
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                             ideas remain in the popular thinking for a                                                    green your campus and become
                             long time. As you read this chapter, make a                   a few words about the term
                             list of terms, ideas, concepts, and facts you                 ecology.                        an active participant! If your
                             encounter that contradict what you thought                         Ecologyis probably one     college or university isn’t ac-
                                                                                           of the most misused words       tively pursuing ways to go
                             was true.                                                     in the English language. Ban-   green, consider organizing an
                             © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC                                          © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC
                                                                                           ners proclaim, “Save Our        effort with key student orga-
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                                                                                           Ecology.” Speakers argue        nizations, faculty members, and
                                                                                                                           administrators. Chances are
                                                                                           that “our ecology is in dan-    there are plenty of environ-
                        pendence first by taking a look around the room in which you       ger,” and others talk about     mentally active faculty and
                        are sitting. Everything in that room comes from the Earth or       the “ecological movement.”      staff that would love to help
                        a natural system. The clothes you wear, your morning tea or        These common uses of the        out.
           © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC                                         © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC
                        coffee, and even the cornflakes you ate for breakfast are          word ecology are incorrect.
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                        products of the Earth—the soil, water, air, and plants.            Why?
                            Like all other species, humans depend on the soil, air,             Ecologyis a branch of science. It describes and quanti-
                        water, sun, and a host of living organisms to survive. Each        fies the web of interactions in the environment. But ecol-
                        year, in fact, human beings (and other animals) consume            ogy is not synonymous with the word environment. Thus,
                        enormous quantities of oxygen, which is used in the cells of
                                               © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC                                          © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC
                                                                                           we can save our ecology department and ecology textbooks,
                        our bodies to break down food molecules to generate en-            but we cannot save our ecology. Our ecology is not in dan-
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                        ergy. Oxygen is produced by plants and algae. Without these        ger, but our environment is. You cannot join the ecology
                        organisms, humans and other animals could not survive.             movement, but you would be a welcome addition to the 
                        Trees, grasses, and other plants also provide a host of addi-      environmental movement.
                        tional free services. For example, plants protect the water-         KEY CONCEPTS
                        sheds near our homes, preventing flooding and erosion.
                             © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC                                         © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC
                        Swamps purify the water in streams and lakes—water many              Ecology is a field of science that seeks to describe relationships
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                        of us drink. Birds help to control insect populations.               between organisms and their chemical and physical environment.
                            Clearly, nature serves us well. Although many of us have
                        isolated ourselves from nature, we still depend on nature in
                        many ways. We have not emancipated ourselves from it at             4.3     The Structure 
                        all. We also influence natural cycles, and therefore, as Chap-
           © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC                                         © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC
                        ter 1 explained, not only do we depend on nature, the fate                  of Natural Systems
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                        of natural systems depends on us.                                  In order to understand ecology, you must study the structure
                          KEY CONCEPTS                                                     of natural systems. We begin with the biosphere.
                          Humans are a part of nature, dependent on natural systems for
                          a variety of economically important resources and ecological     The Biosphere
                                                © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC                                         © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC
                          services essential to our survival and long-term prosperity.     The science of ecology focuses much of its attention on bi-
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                                                                                           ological systems, examining their components and inter-
                         4.2                                                               actions. The largest biological system is the biosphere
                                 Ecology: The Study                                        (BI-oh-sfere), the skin of life on planet Earth. As shown in
                                 of Natural Systems                                        FIGURE 4-1, the biosphere forms at the intersection of air,
                                                                                           water, and land. In fact, all living organisms consist of com-
                             © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC                                         © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC
                        This chapter explores ecology, the study of living organisms       ponents derived from these three realms. The carbon atoms
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                        and the web of relationships that binds all of us together in      in body proteins, for example, come from carbon dioxide in
                        nature. Professor Garrett Hardin, a world-renowned ecologist,      the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is captured by plants and
                        wrote that ecology takes as its domain the entire living world.    made into food molecules by a process known as photo-
                        Ecologists study how organisms interact with one another and       synthesis. Animals eat plants; the food molecules then be-
                        how they interact with the abiotic, or nonliving, components       come the building blocks of proteins and other important
           © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC                                         © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC
                        of the environment (sunlight, for example).                        molecules in animals. The minerals in the bones of animals
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                                                             Sun                                               Atmosphere (air)
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                             Heat                                                       NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION                              Heat
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                                       Lithosphere (earth)                                                                       Hydrosphere (water)
                         FIGURE 4-1 The biosphere. The biosphere 
                         exists at the intersection of land, air, and water. 
                         Organisms derive essential minerals and other substances from
                              © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC                                             © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC
                         these three spheres.
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                         come from the soil, again through plants. Water comes di-             for instance, may be used by a rice plant during photosyn-
                         rectly from streams and lakes and plant matter.                       thesis next month in Indonesia. Those carbon dioxide mole-
                             The biosphere extends from the bottom of the ocean, ap-           cules will be incorporated into carbohydrate produced by the
                         proximately 11,000 meters (36,000 feet) below the surface,            plant and stored in the seed. Consumed by an Indonesian
                         to the tops of the highest mountains, about 9,000 meters              boy, the carbohydrate will be broken back down during cel-
           © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC                                             © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC
                         (30,000 feet) above sea level. Although that may seem like            lular energy production. The carbon dioxide molecules are re-
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                         a long way, it’s really not. In fact, if the Earth were the size      leased into the atmosphere. Without this and dozens of other
                         of an apple, the biosphere would be about the thickness of            recycling processes, all life on the planet would grind to a
                         its skin. Although life exists throughout the biosphere, it is        halt. Protecting the environment, then, helps to protect global
                         rare at the extremes, where conditions for survival are less          recycling systems on which we all depend.
                         than optimum. Most living things are concentrated in a nar-
                                                  © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC                                             © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC
                         row band extending from less than 200 meters (600 feet)                 KEY CONCEPTS
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                         below the surface of the ocean to about 6,000 meters (20,000            The biosphere is an enormous biological system, spanning the
                         feet) above sea level.                                                  entire planet. The materials within this closed system are recy-
                             The biosphere is a closed system, much like a sealed                cled over and over in order for life to be sustained. The only out-
                         terrarium. By definition, a closed system receives no materi-           side contribution to the biosphere is sunlight, which provides
                         als from the outside. The only outside contribution is sunlight,        energy for all living things.
                              © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC                                             © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC
                         which is vital to the health and well-being of virtually all life.
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                             Sunlight powers almost all life on the planet. Even the en-       Biomes and Aquatic Life Zones
                         ergy released by the combustion of coal, oil, and natural gas
                         (which we use to power our homes and factories) comes from            The biosphere consists of terrestrial and aquatic systems.
                         sunlight that fell on the Earth several hundred million years ago.    Viewed from outer space, the Earth—the terrestrial portion of
                             Because the Earth is a closed system, all materials neces-        the biosphere—resembles a giant jigsaw puzzle, consisting
           © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC                                             © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC
                         sary for life must be recycled. The carbon dioxide you exhale,        of large landmasses among vast expanses of ocean. The land-
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                         52       PART II. Natural Systems/Human Systems: Searching for a Sustainable Relationship
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           © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC                                  Ice       © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC
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                              Tropic of Cancer
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                                  Equator
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                             Tropic of Capricorn
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                                     Tundra                                        Temperate grassland                           Tropical scrub forest
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                                     Mountains                                     Arid grassland,                               Tropical rain forest,
                                     (complex zonation)                            semidesert                                    tropical evergreen forest
                                     Taiga (northern                               Desert                                        Tropical deciduous forest
                                     coniferous forest)
                              © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC                                           © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC
                                     Temperate forest                              Chapparal/Mediterranean                       Tropical savanna,
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                                                                                                                                 thorn forest
                        FIGURE 4-2 Biomes. This map shows the world’s major biomes.
                        masses, or continents, can be divided into fairly large regions       cause the subsoil (called permafrost) remains frozen year
           © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC                                            © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC
                        called biomes(FIGURE 4-2). A biomeis a terrestrial portion of         round, preventing the deep root growth necessary for trees.
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                        the biosphere characterized by a distinct climate and a particular        Immediately south of the tundra lies the taiga(TIE-ga),
                        assemblage of plants and animals adapted to it.1 Chapter 5            also known as the northern coniferousor boreal forest.The
                        describes the biomes in detail. This section provides an              taiga’s milder climate and longer growing season result in a
                        overview.                                                             greater diversity and abundance of plant and animal life than
                             In a biome, abiotic conditions—such as soil type, tem-           exists on the tundra. Evergreen trees, bears, wolverines, and
                                                 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC                                            © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC
                        perature, and rainfall—determine the plant communities                moose are characteristic species (FIGURE 4-3b).
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                        that can survive. These, in turn, determine which animals can             East of the Mississippi River lies the temperate decid-
                        subsist. As illustrated in Figure 4-2, the North American             uous forest biome, characterized by an even warmer cli-
                        continent contains seven major biomes, five of which are              mate and more abundant rainfall (FIGURE 4-3c). Broad-leaved
                        discussed here. Starting in the north is the tundra(TON-dra),         trees make their home in this biome. Opossums, black bears,
                        a region of long, cold winters and rather short growing sea-          squirrels, and foxes are characteristic animal species.
                             © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC                                            © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC
                        sons (FIGURE 4-3a). The rolling terrain of the tundra sup-                West of the Mississippi lies the grassland biome (FIG-
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                        ports grasses, mosses, lichens, wolves, musk oxen, and other          URE 4-3d). Inadequate rainfall and periodic drought prevent
                        animals adapted to the bitter winter cold. Trees cannot grow          trees from growing on the grasslands, except near rivers,
                        on the tundra because of the short growing season and be-             streams, and human habitation. Over the years, deep-rooted
                                                                                              grasses have evolved on the plains. These grasses can with-
                        1                                                                     stand fire, drought, and grazing even in arid grasslands. Coy-
                         Although each biome has its specific climate, there can be con-
           © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC                                            © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC
                        siderable climatic variation within a given biome.                    otes, hawks, and voles are characteristic animal species.
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                                                                                        CHAPTER 4: Principles of Ecology: How Ecosystems Work             53
                                                                 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC.  NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION. 
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