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Pedagogy,
curriculum,
teaching
practices and
teacher
education in
developing
countries
EVIDENCE BRIEF
The evidence suggests that when teachers see pedagogy as entailing communication with students they use practices in
interactive ways that mean that learning is more likely to take place: the ‘how’ is more important than ‘what’ teachers do.
About this brief drawing on students’ alignment of professional
This paper summaries evidence backgrounds and experiences. development with teachers’
from a DFID-funded review by Six practices used in interactive needs, the promoted pedagogy
Westbrook et al. (2013), entitled ways by effective teachers were and in-class monitoring of
Pedagogy, Curriculum, Teaching more likely to enhance learning: teachers
Practices and Teacher Education demonstration and explanation, support from head teachers
in Developing Countries, produced drawing on subject knowledge alignment of forms of
by the University of Sussex. The flexible use of whole-class, group assessment with the school
review identifies pedagogic and pair work where students curriculum.
practices that most effectively discuss a shared task Practices were disabled by
support all students to learn, and frequent, relevant use of learning misalignment of:
determines ways that these can be materials beyond the textbook initial teacher training with the
supported by teacher education open and closed questioning, school curriculum
and the school curriculum. expanding responses, Continuing professional
encouraging questioning development with the promoted
This brief provides an overview of use of local languages and code pedagogy
the strength of evidence, key switching (switching between two the school curriculum with
findings and theory of change, to languages within a sentence to assessment.
assist policy makers and ensure understanding) Further disabling factors were:
researchers in assessing the planning and varying lesson poor communication with the
evidence in this field. It is not sequences. community and policy makers
designed to compare specific limited resources and large class
intervention packages. Practices used were student- sizes.
centred and teacher-led, but
Key findings informed by social constructivist Evidence Base
Pedagogic practices were most approaches that see knowledge as
effective when they involved socially constructed and learning The overall strength of the
communication with students. as a social process. A positive and evidence is moderate. However,
Three strategies indicated where mutually reinforcing relationship the evidence is less robust on the
teachers were focused on between teacher attitudes, impact of practices on student
students’ learning: strategies and practices was learning outcomes, with few
found. studies using baseline and post-
feedback, paying inclusive and test measurements.
sustained attention to students Practices were enabled by:
creating a safe classroom teacher peer support
environment
DFID RESEARCH AND EVIDENCE DIVISION: EVIDENCE BRIEF 1
Teacher education: ITE, CPD
Theory of change Training aligned to curriculum & specific pedagogy, &
tailored to teachers’ existing knowledge, practices &
Curriculum contexts moderate evidence
• Pitch at a level appropriate to students & Teacher manuals & scripted lesson plans moderate
make content accessible and relevant to evidence
students weak evidence Teacher educators understand and use promoted
pedagogy weak evidence
• CPD courses to cover new subjects & Regular follow-up support in classrooms moderate
working with students with special needs evidence
weak evidence Facilitate teacher peer support moderate evidence
• Align assessment modes with curricular
pedagogic design moderate evidence
ASSU - support from school head &
ASSU community
- - Sufficient
flexibility in M - realistic expectations of teachers’
national or school M ALIGNMENT PTI progress
curriculum PTI O
- O NS
- Buy-in from NS
teachers This diagram represents a
proposal for the optimal
- Recognition in Teacher thinking alignments between pedagogy,
teacher education
curriculum and teacher
- - Acceptance by Positive attitudes towards training & students weak evidence education that support
stakeholders
maximum change in teachers’
Communicative strategies practices and which are more
likely to lead to increases in
Responsive feedback, sustained and inclusive approach student learning attainment. It
moderate evidence also addresses the assumptions
Draw on students’ backgrounds and experiences in teaching inherent in making that change
weak evidence happen at each step.
Concern to create a ‘safe’ environment in classroom Strength of the evidence
moderate evidence Teaching practices Moderate - Slightly more robust
evidence was found on the
Explanations informed by pedagogical content knowledge weak importance of teachers paying
evidence attention to students, use of
Varied use of whole-class, group and pair work moderate group work, interactive
evidence questioning and use of
materials.
Use of variety of learning materials moderate evidence The evidence within teacher
Interactive questioning style moderate evidence education is moderate on:
Use of local languages and/or code switching moderate alignment of training with
evidence pedagogy; provision of teacher
Lesson planning that incorporates variety moderate evidence manuals; in-class support and
practice; and peer support.
A Weak - the evidence is weakest
SS on how the practices impact on
- Students able U student attainment and
to learn from MP stakeholder satisfaction.
these practices T
I
O Within the curriculum, evidence
- Sufficient NS is weak apart from alignment of
learning assessment with curriculum
materials design.
Impact on students
Greater student attendance, engagement moderate evidence
Higher student attainment weak evidence
Stakeholder satisfaction weak evidence
DFID RESEARCH AND EVIDENCE DIVISION: EVIDENCE BRIEF 2
Outcomes by type and quality of study
Forty five studies that were quality assessed as either High or Moderate were included in the final narrative synthesis.
The studies were classified into three types: interventions, reforms and existing conditions.
Intervention: Studies or evaluations of pedagogic practices within the context of a specific project or attempt to
improve schooling in a particular location through means such as funding, training and providing material resources.
Reform: studies that take place in the context of large-scale reform mostly of national curricula, and therefore, as in
interventions, there is likely to be an indication of the desired practices to be produced by the reform.
Existing conditions: exploratory research which describes and analyses what is going on in a location. Interventions
or reforms may have played a part but are not highlighted by the study.
Reform studies by quality Intervention studies by quality
12 12
10 10
iesd 8 dies 8
sut stu
of 6 of 6
r Mixed er Positive
eb b
mu 4 Negative um 4 Mixed
N N
2 2
0 0
High High/Mod. Moderate High High/Mod. Moderate
Quality of study Quality of study
Existing conditions studies by quality Studies were categorised as to whether they reported
mostly positive outcomes, mixed results or mostly
12 negative outcomes. The vast majority of studies were
qualitative, with only four quantitative. They came from
10 20 different countries, predominantly from sub-Saharan
Africa and South Asia. Students in the majority of studies
ies 8 came from poor or marginalised backgrounds and
dtu included girls.
sf Positive The evidence consists of studies where a variety of
or 6 pedagogical practices were used, and in different
eb Mixed combinations, indicating how varied their implementation
mu 4
N Negative may be. Results indicated that the outcome is dependent
2 on implementation.
When viewed in the light of the strategies and teacher
0 attitudes that shape how practices are implemented, it is
High High/Mod. Moderate possible to identify some of the factors shaping the
Quality of studies outcomes of teaching and learning. How teachers
implement a particular practice is more important
than what pedagogic approach they use.
Research gaps
Larger-scale mixed-methods studies with baseline and post-tests measuring student attainment associated
with specific practices over time and inclusion of students’ perspectives.
Effective practices for students with disabilities and overage students, and in multigrade classes.
Further observational evidence of effective practices for very large classes.
Examples of curricula designed for specific student groups; teachers’ use of assessment in relation to the
curriculum.
DFID RESEARCH AND EVIDENCE DIVISION: EVIDENCE BRIEF 3
What is the evidence on the effectiveness of pedagogical practices,
in what conditions, and with what population of learners?
This table presents the evidence for effective practices under the three pedagogic aspects of attitudes, strategies and
practices and expands the headlines given in the Theory of Change on page 3. Teachers used combinations of these
practices in observed lessons, but even used in isolation they sometimes led to improvements, although there is also
evidence that the same practice can result in poor outcomes (often where practices are delivered without consideration of
the students).
The first number in the bracket represents the numbers of studies for each aspect. The second is the number of those
that gave evidence of increases in student attainment as a result of the practice. The strength of the evidence for each
aspect is given in the right hand column. The evidence overall is moderate but inconsistent, with both positive and
negative findings identified in different countries and regions and in different types of study.
Positive examples Negative examples Overall
Pedagogic aspect (Number of studies/number of studies (number of studies) strength of
giving evidence of increases in student evidence
attainment)
Training & Harmonisation between culture, Constructions of the teacher as
Pedagogy training, pedagogy and classroom authoritarian prevent understanding Weak
es contexts makes teachers positive of interactive practices (8)
tud towards new practices (4/2)
tti Positive attitudes towards poor and
A Students marginalised students leads to Moderate
awareness of students’ backgrounds,
experiences and abilities (6/1)
Tailoring instruction to specific
Paying students, giving tests, homework, Groups of students ignored,
attention constructive feedback, including all especially students with disabilities in Moderate
students in lesson content and large classrooms (6)
es discourse (7/4)
gi Students’ backgrounds, prior
ate Student knowledge and local examples drawn Lesson content overly abstract & Weak
trS characteristics upon to make lesson content relevant irrelevant for students (2)
and meaningful (5/1)
Lively, warm and friendly teachers
Classroom encourage participation. Absence of Moderate
Environment corporal punishment makes students
feel safe (6/2)
Verbal interaction in small mixed and Permanent rows, little peer
Group work ability groups, sharing tasks and interaction; active zone of students at Moderate
resources, monitored by the teacher front do best (5)
(15/4)
Variety of materials used with
Learning textbook, from mp3s to stones, Prescriptive and sole use of difficult Moderate
materials integrated with prior knowledge & textbooks, copying from board (7)
concept formation (9/5)
esc Use of Open and closed, expanding and Frequent closed questions, choral
ti questions probing responses, encouraging responses, one word answers (7) Moderate
acr student questioning (10/4)
P Imaginative, interactive demonstrations
Demonstration & explanations using voice, students, Didactic lecturing, poor content Weak
images, based on sound content and knowledge (13)
pedagogical content knowledge (8/1)
Use of local language gives access to Unfamiliar language led to rote
Language lesson content and encourages verbal learning & incomprehension (3) Moderate
interaction (9/3)
Lesson Planned lessons led to varied Predictable teaching sequence Moderate
structure sequences of methods & tasks (11/3) limited variety of activities (15)
DFID RESEARCH AND EVIDENCE DIVISION: EVIDENCE BRIEF 4
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