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Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
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The enhanced warfighter
Kenneth Ford and Clark Glymour
Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 2014 70: 43
DOI: 10.1177/0096340213516746
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DOI:10.1177/0096340213516746
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KennethFordandClarkGlymour
Abstract
Moderntechnologicalwarfarerequiresalevelofcognitiveabilityanddisciplineuniqueinthehistoryofarmed
conflict. Recent advances in physiology, nutrition, neuroscience, and engineering offer a significant potential
topreventorreducethedegradationofawarfighterÕsmentalorphysicalcapabilitiesinthisdemandingenvir-
onment. The authors explore four categories for potential enhancement of military personnel: genetic or
computational-mechanical alteration of the human body; physiological monitoring and tighter coupling
between man and machine; pharmaceuticals; and nutrition and supplementation. None of these types of
enhancements is without controversy; in particular, genetic intervention would require morally intolerable
experimentation.Intheforeseeablefuture,themilitaryenhancementtechnologiesmostlikelytoseeusewillbe
akin to those seen in elite athletics. Physiological monitoring and feedback, changes in nutrition, and careful
pharmaceutical interventions all could improve warfighter performance, and, the authors assert, such
enhancements are not morally problematic if their effects are candidly assessed and revealed. In choosing
whetherandhowtoenhancemilitarypersonnel,thegovernmentmustbalancelong-termhealthhazardswitha
reducedrisk of near-term injury or death. If physiological monitoring and feedback (and regulation, through
drugs or other means) can decrease large, immediate, or long-term risks to the life or well-being of service
personnel, the authors write, there appears to be a moral obligation to provide those enhancements to
warfighters.
Keywords
human augmentation, human performance enhancement, ketones, military ethics, military performance
enhancement,nutrition, omega-3 fatty acids, supplementation, resilience
ecause of its long-standing sup- shownlimitedinterestinexploitingbio-
port and leverage of advances in medical advances that might enhance
Bthephysical sciences, computer intrinsichumanperformance and resili-
science,andengineering,theUSmilitary ence.Thisreluctanceisstartingtowane,
is without peer on the technological butonlyslowly.
front. Many of the militaryÕs technical Alladvancedmilitariesnowoperatein
systems have been developed with the aworldofincreasingtechnologicalparity
aim of improving and extending human and fragility. It is well appreciated that
performance. Night-vision devices are humanperformanceisanimportantcom-
but one well-known example. Until ponent of the overall advantage of one
recently, however, the military has military force with respect to another.
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44 Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 70(1)
Inmilitaryaffairs,thehumanelementcan Man of 1970s TV to the Jason Bourne
havenon-lineareffects,bothpositiveand movie seriesÑhave sometimes featured
negative, on mission outcomes (Defense fighters whohavebeenprostheticallyor
Science Board, 2013). New advances in biochemically enhanced by some gov-
physiology, nutrition, neuroscience, and ernment agency, licit or illicit. But how
engineeringnowofferasignificantpoten- and whether actually to enhance the
tial to prevent (or reduce) the degrad- physical, cognitive, and emotional capa-
ation of a warfighterÕs cognitive and cities of US military personnel is a
physical capabilities during conflict and serious policy question.
substantially increase the performance Social attitudes about technological
of both combat personnel and the larger adaptations of the human condition are
systemsofwhichtheyarepart. complex and not obviously consistent.
Researchers and policy makers are Almost all people use optional enhance-
exploring, or at least considering, a new mentsoftheirabilities,oroptionalreduc-
generation of technology that may fur- tionsintheirdisabilities.Readingglasses,
ther extend and amplify the intrinsic hearing aids, and aspirin tablets remedy
physical and cognitive abilities of com- common disabilities, from myopia to
batants. The Air Force Chief ScientistÕs headaches.Computersare,atbase,cogni-
relativelyrecentdocumentÒTechnology tiveprostheses.Dietandexerciseregimes
Horizons:AVisionforAirForceScience can enhance our abilities or remediate
andTechnology2010”30Óidentifiescrit- disabilities. Prosthetic devices enable
ical technologies for the Air Force those who have lost limbs to grasp,
(Office of the US Air Force Chief Scien- walk, and run. Society finds no moral
tist, 2010). This remarkably forward- problemwithanyoftheseenhancements.
looking blueprint highlights human Computerized implants in animal brains
augmentation and indicates that it may havebeenstudiedforseveraldecadesand
come in the form of increased use of havebeenusedinhumansÑwithoutser-
autonomous systems, interfaces for ious ethical qualmsÑfor cases of blind-
more intuitive decision making, close ness and loss of motor control. There is
coupling of humans and automated sys- adegreeofcyborgismthatismorallytol-
tems,exploitinggeneticcorrelatestoper- eratedbecauseithelpstocompensatefor
formance, and direct augmentation of adisability.
humansviadrugsorimplantstoimprove Ordinarily, such adaptations do not
memory, alertness, cognition, and visual prompt ethical worries, but there are
andauralacuity.Thedocumentalsonotes exceptions. Groups in the deaf commu-
that while some of these approaches may nity,forexample,haveopposedcochlear
seem inherently distasteful, potential implants for the congenitally deaf.
adversaries are not likely to be con- Sportsorganizationshaveresistedavar-
strained by similar cultural values. iety of assistance devices: carts for han-
Technologicalapproachestoimproved dicappedprofessionalgolfers;improved
human performance such as night-vision swimsuits for competitive swimmers;
gogglesaretypicallynotcontroversial,but prosthetic legs for competitive runners.
biological technologies can stir the The reasons for opposition include a
public imagination. Action films and desire for community solidarity, a sense
televisionÑfrom The Six Million Dollar that the rules of a game intrinsically
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Ford and Glymour 45
forbid certain aids, and an antipathy to pharmaceuticals; and finally, nutrition
givingsomeperformersanunfairadvan- and supplementation. None of these is
tage. Society seems to be especially withoutcontroversy.
sensitive to certain advantages in
sports Ñ witness the universal concern Theethicalminefieldof
over drugs and blood oxygen pack- genetic andmechanical
ingÑbut is indifferent to others. enhancement
Although they greatly affect perform-
ance, differences in genetics, training In the short or mid-term, mechanical
locales,andfinancialresourcesfortrain- alterations to senses or computational
ing seem to mean little or nothing to implantsareunlikelytobepracticalmili-
sporting audiences. No modern society tary technologies. An infrared-sensitive
objects to external, cognitive prostheses, eye implant, for example, would require
whetherthecomputer,thesmartphone,or expensivesurgery,anditisnotclearthat
Google Glass (OK, maybe Google Glass, thevisualcortexwouldknowwhattodo
but chiefly because the appliance is with the input. A cortically implanted
creepy), even though these devices have communication or memory device
probably created differential advantages wouldchiefly have the advantage that it
for those who have the resources and tal- could not be lost, which does not seem
ents to make the fullest use of them. close to worth the bother.
None of the aforementioned reserva- One can imagine a future in which
tions aboutorobjectionstoperformance genetically produced anatomical and
enhancement neatly applies to the mili- functional changes are possible and
tary. Other things equal, Americans seenasadvantageoustotheperformance
(and, of course, citizens of other coun- of military duties. Gene manipulation is
tries) want their military personnel to nowhere close to producing specific,
haveanadvantageovertheiradversaries. functional, useful, mammalian anatom-
Notallisfairinwar,butalotofunfairness ical variations, but they are conceivable.
is wanted. So the real issue is whether Theethical issues vary as far as the sci-
other things really are, and will be, ence fiction imagination can range, and
equal.Docurrentmilitaryenhancements, the moral concerns and constraints will
andthoseinnearprospect,risklong-term vary accordingly. One way to think of
harm to those treated? Do they threaten what might be morally tolerable is to
perspectives on what is human or on the imagine the sorts of genetic anomalies
proprietyofpermanentalterationsofthe that would give an advantage in sports
human condition? Or are the enhance- but that would be difficult legitimately
mentswithinprospectmedicallyandeth- to excludeÑfor example, a competitive
ically sensible? Do the potential benefits swimmer with fully functional webbed
repaytherisks?We,theauthors,seefour feet. The moral issues seem to lie less in
overlapping but conceptually separable the existence of such genetic modifica-
categoriesofmilitarypersonnelenhance- tions in the human population, and
ment:geneticorcomputational/mechan- moreintheideaofdeliberatelycreating
ical alteration of the human body; a subpopulation that has them. Major
physiological monitoring and tighter genetic alteration of adults does not
coupling between man and machine; seemfeasible,andasystemofembryonic
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